diff --git a/backend/CLAUDE.md b/backend/CLAUDE.md
index ae3bb356a..f031d7aab 100644
--- a/backend/CLAUDE.md
+++ b/backend/CLAUDE.md
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ deer-flow/
 │   │       └── deerflow/
 │   │           ├── agents/            # LangGraph agent system
 │   │           │   ├── lead_agent/    # Main agent (factory + system prompt)
-│   │           │   ├── middlewares/   # 10 middleware components
+│   │           │   ├── middlewares/   # 11 middleware components
 │   │           │   ├── memory/        # Memory extraction, queue, prompts
 │   │           │   └── thread_state.py # ThreadState schema
 │   │           ├── sandbox/           # Sandbox execution system
@@ -218,9 +218,10 @@ Lead-agent middlewares are assembled in strict append order across `packages/har
 14. **MemoryMiddleware** - Queues conversations for async memory update (filters to user + final AI responses)
 15. **ViewImageMiddleware** - Injects base64 image data before LLM call (conditional on vision support)
 16. **DeferredToolFilterMiddleware** - Hides deferred (MCP) tool schemas from the bound model using a build-time deferred-name set + catalog hash, reading per-thread promotions from `ThreadState.promoted` (hash-scoped, no ContextVar); a tool becomes bound on subsequent turns after `tool_search` returns its schema (optional, if `tool_search.enabled`)
-17. **SubagentLimitMiddleware** - Truncates excess `task` tool calls from model response to enforce `MAX_CONCURRENT_SUBAGENTS` limit (optional, if `subagent_enabled`)
-18. **LoopDetectionMiddleware** - Detects repeated tool-call loops; hard-stop responses clear both structured `tool_calls` and raw provider tool-call metadata before forcing a final text answer
-19. **ClarificationMiddleware** - Intercepts `ask_clarification` tool calls, interrupts via `Command(goto=END)` (must be last)
+17. **SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware** - Merges `request.system_message` and every in-`request.messages` SystemMessage into a single leading SystemMessage in `wrap_model_call`; provider-agnostic fix for strict backends (vLLM/SGLang/Qwen/Anthropic) that reject non-leading system messages. Touches the per-request payload only — checkpoint state is unchanged so `is_dynamic_context_reminder` history scanners keep working. On midnight crossings, earlier `dynamic_context_reminder`-tagged SystemMessages are dropped and only the latest (most recent date) survives, avoiding two contradictory `<current_date>` blocks appearing adjacent with no temporal anchor.
+18. **SubagentLimitMiddleware** - Truncates excess `task` tool calls from model response to enforce `MAX_CONCURRENT_SUBAGENTS` limit (optional, if `subagent_enabled`)
+19. **LoopDetectionMiddleware** - Detects repeated tool-call loops; hard-stop responses clear both structured `tool_calls` and raw provider tool-call metadata before forcing a final text answer
+20. **ClarificationMiddleware** - Intercepts `ask_clarification` tool calls, interrupts via `Command(goto=END)` (must be last)
 
 ### Configuration System
 
diff --git a/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/lead_agent/agent.py b/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/lead_agent/agent.py
index 586a5a9a5..1beff6337 100644
--- a/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/lead_agent/agent.py
+++ b/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/lead_agent/agent.py
@@ -348,6 +348,13 @@ def build_middlewares(
 
         middlewares.append(DeferredToolFilterMiddleware(deferred_setup.deferred_names, deferred_setup.catalog_hash))
 
+    # Coalesce every SystemMessage into a single leading one before the request
+    # reaches the provider. Strict backends (vLLM, SGLang, Qwen, Anthropic)
+    # reject non-leading SystemMessages. See system_message_coalescing_middleware.py.
+    from deerflow.agents.middlewares.system_message_coalescing_middleware import SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware
+
+    middlewares.append(SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware())
+
     # Add SubagentLimitMiddleware to truncate excess parallel task calls
     subagent_enabled = cfg.get("subagent_enabled", False)
     if subagent_enabled:
diff --git a/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/middlewares/system_message_coalescing_middleware.py b/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/middlewares/system_message_coalescing_middleware.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..054153afb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/backend/packages/harness/deerflow/agents/middlewares/system_message_coalescing_middleware.py
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+"""Middleware to coalesce multiple SystemMessages into a single leading one.
+
+Strict OpenAI-compatible backends (vLLM, SGLang, Qwen) and Anthropic reject
+non-leading SystemMessages with errors like "System message must be at the
+beginning" or "Received multiple non-consecutive system messages". The
+official OpenAI API tolerates mid-conversation system messages, so the issue
+only surfaces on strict backends.
+
+DeerFlow's lead agent accumulates multiple SystemMessages because
+DynamicContextMiddleware uses the ID-swap technique to replace the first or
+last HumanMessage with a triplet whose first element is a SystemMessage
+reminder (framework-owned date/metadata must not masquerade as user input,
+per OWASP LLM01). On midnight crossings a second SystemMessage (date update)
+is injected. create_agent holds the static system_prompt in the separate
+``request.system_message`` field and only flattens it into the message list
+inside the model-call handler (``[request.system_message, *messages]``).
+
+This middleware runs in wrap_model_call — before the handler flattens the two
+— and merges ``request.system_message`` plus every SystemMessage found in
+``request.messages`` into a single leading SystemMessage emitted via the
+``system_message`` field. It only touches the request payload; the persistent
+conversation state (checkpoint) is unchanged, so middleware that scans history
+by marker (e.g. is_dynamic_context_reminder) keeps working.
+
+Note: Mirrors the per-request coalescing already done for Claude in
+claude_provider._coalesce_system_messages but at a provider-agnostic layer so
+every backend benefits from a single fix instead of per-provider patches.
+"""
+
+from collections.abc import Awaitable, Callable
+from typing import override
+
+from langchain.agents import AgentState
+from langchain.agents.middleware import AgentMiddleware
+from langchain.agents.middleware.types import ModelCallResult, ModelRequest, ModelResponse
+from langchain_core.messages import SystemMessage
+
+from deerflow.agents.middlewares.dynamic_context_middleware import is_dynamic_context_reminder
+
+
+def _flatten_content(content) -> str:
+    """Convert message content to a plain string, handling both str and list types.
+
+    langchain messages support list-type content for multimodal (e.g.
+    ``[{"type": "text", "text": "..."}]``). SystemMessages in DeerFlow are always
+    plain strings, but this helper ensures robustness for any content shape.
+    """
+    if isinstance(content, str):
+        return content
+    if isinstance(content, list):
+        parts = []
+        for item in content:
+            if isinstance(item, str):
+                parts.append(item)
+            elif isinstance(item, dict) and "text" in item:
+                parts.append(item["text"])
+            else:
+                parts.append(str(item))
+        return "\n".join(parts)
+    return str(content)
+
+
+def _coalesce_request(request: ModelRequest) -> ModelRequest | None:
+    """Merge ``request.system_message`` and in-``messages`` SystemMessages into one.
+
+    On langchain >= 1.2.15 the static system prompt lives in the separate
+    ``request.system_message`` field, not in ``request.messages``. The model-call
+    handler flattens them at the very last moment (``[system_message, *messages]``),
+    so a middleware that only scans ``messages`` cannot see the prompt and ends up
+    a no-op. This helper inspects both sources, merges every SystemMessage into a
+    single entry, and emits the result via ``system_message`` so the handler still
+    prepends it correctly.
+
+    Returns None when no SystemMessages live inside ``messages`` — in that case
+    ``system_message`` (if set) is already the sole leading system block and the
+    request can pass through with zero mutation, preserving prefix-cache hits.
+    """
+    in_msg_systems = [m for m in request.messages if isinstance(m, SystemMessage)]
+    if not in_msg_systems:
+        return None
+
+    # Merge system_message (if any) + all in-messages SystemMessages.
+    parts: list[SystemMessage] = []
+    if request.system_message is not None:
+        parts.append(request.system_message)
+    parts.extend(in_msg_systems)
+
+    # Deduplicate dynamic_context_reminder SystemMessages: only keep the last
+    # one (most recent date), drop earlier reminders. On midnight crossings
+    # the merged content would otherwise contain two adjacent contradictory
+    # <current_date> blocks with no temporal anchor — the intervening turns
+    # that originally separated them are gone after coalescing. The model
+    # should see only the latest date, not a stale one it must guess to
+    # ignore.
+    reminder_indices = [i for i, p in enumerate(parts) if is_dynamic_context_reminder(p)]
+    if len(reminder_indices) > 1:
+        keep_last = reminder_indices[-1]
+        parts = [p for i, p in enumerate(parts) if i not in reminder_indices[:-1] or i == keep_last]
+
+    # Preserve the id of the first SystemMessage (typically the static
+    # system_prompt) so downstream consumers that key off the leading system
+    # message id are unaffected. Merge additional_kwargs from all parts so
+    # markers like hide_from_ui / dynamic_context_reminder from reminders are
+    # retained on the coalesced block.
+    first = parts[0]
+    merged_kwargs: dict = {}
+    for p in parts:
+        merged_kwargs.update(p.additional_kwargs or {})
+    merged = SystemMessage(
+        content="\n\n".join(_flatten_content(p.content) for p in parts),
+        id=first.id,
+        additional_kwargs=merged_kwargs,
+    )
+
+    non_system = [m for m in request.messages if not isinstance(m, SystemMessage)]
+    return request.override(system_message=merged, messages=non_system)
+
+
+class SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware(AgentMiddleware[AgentState]):
+    """Merge all SystemMessages into a single leading SystemMessage.
+
+    Uses wrap_model_call (not before_agent) so the merge runs on the final
+    request payload — where ``system_message`` and ``messages`` are still
+    separate fields — and never touches the persisted state["messages"]. This
+    keeps the checkpoint structure intact for every consumer that scans history
+    (memory builder, journal, summarization, dynamic-context detection).
+    """
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _maybe_coalesce(request: ModelRequest) -> ModelRequest:
+        coalesced = _coalesce_request(request)
+        if coalesced is None:
+            return request
+        return coalesced
+
+    @override
+    def wrap_model_call(
+        self,
+        request: ModelRequest,
+        handler: Callable[[ModelRequest], ModelResponse],
+    ) -> ModelCallResult:
+        return handler(self._maybe_coalesce(request))
+
+    @override
+    async def awrap_model_call(
+        self,
+        request: ModelRequest,
+        handler: Callable[[ModelRequest], Awaitable[ModelResponse]],
+    ) -> ModelCallResult:
+        return await handler(self._maybe_coalesce(request))
diff --git a/backend/tests/test_system_message_coalescing_middleware.py b/backend/tests/test_system_message_coalescing_middleware.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..51a9c7ad5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/backend/tests/test_system_message_coalescing_middleware.py
@@ -0,0 +1,681 @@
+"""Tests for SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware.
+
+Verifies that ``request.system_message`` and in-``messages`` SystemMessages are
+merged into a single leading SystemMessage before the request reaches the LLM,
+fixing the "System message must be at the beginning" error on strict
+OpenAI-compatible backends (vLLM, SGLang, Qwen) and Anthropic.
+
+On langchain >= 1.2.15 the static system prompt lives in the separate
+``request.system_message`` field, not in ``request.messages``. The model-call
+handler flattens them at the very last moment (``[system_message, *messages]``),
+so tests must build requests with the same split to exercise the real code path.
+"""
+
+from unittest.mock import MagicMock
+
+import pytest
+from langchain_core.messages import AIMessage, BaseMessage, HumanMessage, SystemMessage
+
+from deerflow.agents.middlewares.system_message_coalescing_middleware import (
+    SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware,
+    _coalesce_request,
+    _flatten_content,
+)
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Helpers
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _make_request(system_message: SystemMessage | None, messages: list[BaseMessage]):
+    """Build a minimal ModelRequest stand-in matching langchain 1.2.15 shape.
+
+    ``system_message`` and ``messages`` are separate fields — the handler
+    flattens them into ``[system_message, *messages]`` only at call time.
+    """
+    request = MagicMock()
+    request.system_message = system_message
+    request.messages = list(messages)
+    request.override = lambda **updates: _override_request(request, updates)
+    return request
+
+
+def _override_request(request, updates):
+    """Mimic ModelRequest.override(): return a copy with fields replaced."""
+    new = MagicMock()
+    new.system_message = updates.get("system_message", request.system_message)
+    new.messages = updates.get("messages", request.messages)
+    new.override = lambda **kw: _override_request(new, kw)
+    return new
+
+
+def _capture_handler():
+    """Return (captured_requests, handler) that records what was sent."""
+    captured = []
+
+    def handler(req):
+        captured.append(req)
+        return "response"
+
+    return captured, handler
+
+
+def _final_payload(request) -> list[BaseMessage]:
+    """Simulate what the LLM receives: [system_message, *messages] (if set)."""
+    if request.system_message is not None:
+        return [request.system_message, *request.messages]
+    return list(request.messages)
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# _coalesce_request (pure helper)
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class TestCoalesceRequest:
+    def test_no_system_anywhere_returns_none(self):
+        """Zero SystemMessages → passthrough."""
+        request = _make_request(system_message=None, messages=[HumanMessage(content="hi")])
+        assert _coalesce_request(request) is None
+
+    def test_only_system_message_field_returns_none(self):
+        """system_message set, no SystemMessages in messages → passthrough.
+
+        The single system block is already in the right place; coalescing would
+        just create a new object with the same content (zero drift).
+        """
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        assert _coalesce_request(request) is None
+
+    def test_system_message_plus_one_in_msg_system_coalesces(self):
+        """system_message + 1 in-messages SystemMessage → merge into system_message."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="You are DeerFlow.", id="sys-1")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>", id="msg-1")
+        user = HumanMessage(content="Hello", id="msg-1__user")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message is not None
+        assert "You are DeerFlow." in result.system_message.content
+        assert "<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>" in result.system_message.content
+        # messages no longer contain any SystemMessage
+        assert not any(isinstance(m, SystemMessage) for m in result.messages)
+        # user message preserved
+        assert any(m.content == "Hello" for m in result.messages)
+
+    def test_system_message_plus_two_in_msg_systems_coalesces(self):
+        """system_message + 2 non-reminder SystemMessages → merge all (no dedup)."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>day1</system-reminder>")
+        date_update = SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>")
+        user = HumanMessage(content="next")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder, date_update, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert "prompt" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "day1" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "day2" in result.system_message.content
+
+    def test_no_system_message_but_in_msg_systems_coalesces(self):
+        """system_message is None, but messages has SystemMessages → move to system_message."""
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="reminder")
+        user = HumanMessage(content="hi")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=None, messages=[reminder, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message is not None
+        assert "reminder" in result.system_message.content
+        assert not any(isinstance(m, SystemMessage) for m in result.messages)
+
+    def test_merged_content_uses_double_newline_separator(self):
+        """System contents are joined with \\n\\n."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="PART_A")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="PART_B")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message.content == "PART_A\n\nPART_B"
+
+    def test_merged_preserves_first_system_message_id(self):
+        """The merged SystemMessage keeps the id of system_message (first in order)."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-1")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="reminder", id="msg-1")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message.id == "sys-1"
+
+    def test_merged_preserves_in_msg_id_when_no_system_message(self):
+        """When system_message is None, merged id comes from the first in-msg system."""
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="reminder", id="msg-1")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=None, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message.id == "msg-1"
+
+    def test_non_system_messages_keep_original_order(self):
+        """HumanMessage/AIMessage order is preserved after coalescing."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt")
+        user1 = HumanMessage(content="u1", id="u1")
+        ai = AIMessage(content="a1", id="a1")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="reminder")
+        user2 = HumanMessage(content="u2", id="u2")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[user1, ai, reminder, user2])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        non_system = result.messages
+        assert [m.id for m in non_system] == ["u1", "a1", "u2"]
+
+    def test_merged_kwargs_combine_all_parts(self):
+        """additional_kwargs from all parts are merged into the result."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(
+            content="prompt",
+            id="sys-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"source": "prompt"},
+        )
+        reminder = SystemMessage(
+            content="reminder",
+            id="msg-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+        )
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message.additional_kwargs == {
+            "source": "prompt",
+            "hide_from_ui": True,
+            "dynamic_context_reminder": True,
+        }
+
+    def test_merged_kwargs_later_parts_override(self):
+        """When two parts share a key, the later part's value wins."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(
+            content="prompt",
+            id="sys-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"priority": "low"},
+        )
+        reminder = SystemMessage(
+            content="reminder",
+            id="msg-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"priority": "high"},
+        )
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert result.system_message.additional_kwargs["priority"] == "high"
+
+    def test_merged_handles_list_content(self):
+        """List-type SystemMessage content is flattened before joining."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(
+            content=[{"type": "text", "text": "You are DeerFlow."}],
+            id="sys-1",
+        )
+        reminder = SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>", id="msg-1")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert "You are DeerFlow." in result.system_message.content
+        assert "<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>" in result.system_message.content
+
+    def test_reminder_dedup_keeps_only_last(self):
+        """When multiple SystemMessages have dynamic_context_reminder=True,
+        only the last one survives; earlier ones are dropped."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt")
+        day1 = SystemMessage(
+            content="<system-reminder>day1</system-reminder>",
+            id="msg-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+        )
+        day2 = SystemMessage(
+            content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>",
+            id="msg-2",
+            additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+        )
+        user = HumanMessage(content="hi")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[day1, day2, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert "prompt" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "day2" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "day1" not in result.system_message.content
+
+    def test_reminder_dedup_does_not_affect_non_reminder_systems(self):
+        """SystemMessages without dynamic_context_reminder are never deduplicated."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt")
+        other = SystemMessage(content="custom system block", id="msg-1")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(
+            content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>",
+            id="msg-2",
+            additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+        )
+        user = HumanMessage(content="hi")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[other, reminder, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert "prompt" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "custom system block" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "day2" in result.system_message.content
+
+    def test_single_reminder_not_deduplicated(self):
+        """A single reminder SystemMessage is kept — no dedup needed."""
+        prompt = SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt")
+        reminder = SystemMessage(
+            content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>",
+            id="msg-1",
+            additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+        )
+        user = HumanMessage(content="hi")
+        request = _make_request(system_message=prompt, messages=[reminder, user])
+
+        result = _coalesce_request(request)
+        assert result is not None
+        assert "prompt" in result.system_message.content
+        assert "date" in result.system_message.content
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# _flatten_content (pure helper)
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class TestFlattenContent:
+    def test_string_content_returns_same_string(self):
+        assert _flatten_content("hello") == "hello"
+
+    def test_list_of_strings(self):
+        assert _flatten_content(["line1", "line2"]) == "line1\nline2"
+
+    def test_list_of_text_dicts(self):
+        content = [{"type": "text", "text": "paragraph1"}, {"type": "text", "text": "paragraph2"}]
+        assert _flatten_content(content) == "paragraph1\nparagraph2"
+
+    def test_mixed_list(self):
+        content = ["plain", {"type": "text", "text": "dict"}, 42]
+        assert _flatten_content(content) == "plain\ndict\n42"
+
+    def test_non_string_non_list(self):
+        assert _flatten_content(42) == "42"
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware.wrap_model_call
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class TestWrapModelCall:
+    def test_passthrough_when_no_in_msg_systems(self):
+        """No SystemMessages in messages → same request object passed through."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        captured, handler = _capture_handler()
+
+        mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+        assert captured[0] is request
+
+    def test_override_called_when_in_msg_systems_present(self):
+        """system_message + in-msg SystemMessage → override with coalesced request."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[SystemMessage(content="reminder"), HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        captured, handler = _capture_handler()
+
+        mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+
+        sent = captured[0]
+        assert sent is not request  # overridden
+        assert sent.system_message is not None
+        assert "prompt" in sent.system_message.content
+        assert "reminder" in sent.system_message.content
+        assert not any(isinstance(m, SystemMessage) for m in sent.messages)
+
+    def test_returns_handler_result(self):
+        """wrap_model_call returns whatever the handler returns."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[SystemMessage(content="reminder")],
+        )
+        handler = MagicMock(return_value="llm-response")
+
+        result = mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+        assert result == "llm-response"
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware.awrap_model_call
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class TestAwrapModelCall:
+    @pytest.mark.asyncio
+    async def test_async_passthrough_no_in_msg_systems(self):
+        """Async path: no in-msg systems → passthrough."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        captured = []
+
+        async def handler(req):
+            captured.append(req)
+            return "async-response"
+
+        result = await mw.awrap_model_call(request, handler)
+        assert result == "async-response"
+        assert captured[0] is request
+
+    @pytest.mark.asyncio
+    async def test_async_coalesces_in_msg_systems(self):
+        """Async path: system_message + in-msg system → coalesced."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt"),
+            messages=[SystemMessage(content="reminder"), HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        captured = []
+
+        async def handler(req):
+            captured.append(req)
+            return "ok"
+
+        result = await mw.awrap_model_call(request, handler)
+        assert result == "ok"
+        sent = captured[0]
+        assert sent is not request
+        assert "prompt" in sent.system_message.content
+        assert "reminder" in sent.system_message.content
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# Realistic scenario: DynamicContextMiddleware ID-swap + create_agent prompt
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class TestRealisticScenario:
+    def test_first_turn_single_system_message_in_final_payload(self):
+        """Simulate the exact #3707 trigger with the real request shape.
+
+        DynamicContextMiddleware injects the reminder into state["messages"]
+        (which becomes request.messages). create_agent holds system_prompt in
+        request.system_message. Without coalescing, the handler produces
+        [system_prompt, reminder, __memory, __user] → 2 SystemMessages → 400.
+
+        With coalescing, the final payload [system_message, *messages] has
+        exactly 1 SystemMessage.
+        """
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        # Real shape: system_prompt in system_message field, reminder in messages
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="You are DeerFlow 2.0, an AI assistant...", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>\n<current_date>2026-06-22, Monday</current_date>\n</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-1",
+                    additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="<memory>User prefers Python.</memory>", id="msg-1__memory"),
+                HumanMessage(content="What is the capital of France?", id="msg-1__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        captured, handler = _capture_handler()
+
+        mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+
+        # Simulate what the LLM receives: [system_message, *messages]
+        sent = captured[0]
+        final = _final_payload(sent)
+        system_count = sum(1 for m in final if isinstance(m, SystemMessage))
+        assert system_count == 1  # key assertion: only 1 SystemMessage
+        assert "DeerFlow 2.0" in final[0].content
+        assert "<current_date>2026-06-22, Monday</current_date>" in final[0].content
+        # User-owned memory stays as HumanMessage (OWASP LLM01 preserved)
+        assert any(isinstance(m, HumanMessage) and "User prefers Python." in m.content for m in final)
+        assert any(isinstance(m, HumanMessage) and m.content == "What is the capital of France?" for m in final)
+
+    def test_midnight_crossing_single_system_message_in_final_payload(self):
+        """Midnight crossing: 3 SystemMessages total → coalesced to 1.
+
+        DynamicContextMiddleware injects date reminders marked with
+        ``dynamic_context_reminder=True``. On midnight crossings a second
+        reminder (day2) appears after Human/AI turns. During coalescing the
+        intervening turns that originally separated the two reminders are
+        stripped from the merged block, so two contradictory <current_date>
+        blocks would appear adjacent. The middleware keeps only the last
+        reminder (day2) and drops earlier ones (day1) so the model sees a
+        single unambiguous current date.
+        """
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="system prompt", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day1</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-1",
+                    additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="<memory>...</memory>", id="msg-1__memory"),
+                HumanMessage(content="first question", id="msg-1__user"),
+                AIMessage(content="first answer", id="ai-1"),
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-2",
+                    additional_kwargs={"hide_from_ui": True, "dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="second question", id="msg-2__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        captured, handler = _capture_handler()
+
+        mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+
+        sent = captured[0]
+        final = _final_payload(sent)
+        system_count = sum(1 for m in final if isinstance(m, SystemMessage))
+        assert system_count == 1
+        merged = final[0]
+        assert "system prompt" in merged.content
+        # Only the latest date survives; the stale day1 reminder is dropped.
+        assert "day2" in merged.content
+        assert "day1" not in merged.content
+        # Non-system messages in order
+        non_system = [m for m in final if not isinstance(m, SystemMessage)]
+        assert [m.content for m in non_system] == [
+            "<memory>...</memory>",
+            "first question",
+            "first answer",
+            "second question",
+        ]
+
+    def test_no_system_message_field_but_in_msg_systems(self):
+        """Edge case: system_message is None but messages has a SystemMessage.
+
+        The coalesced SystemMessage moves to the system_message field so the
+        handler still prepends it as a leading system block.
+        """
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=None,
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(content="reminder", id="msg-1"),
+                HumanMessage(content="hi"),
+            ],
+        )
+        captured, handler = _capture_handler()
+
+        mw.wrap_model_call(request, handler)
+
+        sent = captured[0]
+        final = _final_payload(sent)
+        system_count = sum(1 for m in final if isinstance(m, SystemMessage))
+        assert system_count == 1
+        assert "reminder" in final[0].content
+
+
+# ===========================================================================
+# Strict-backend stub: end-to-end test against vLLM/SGLang/Qwen rejection
+# ===========================================================================
+
+
+class StrictBackendError(Exception):
+    """Simulates the 400 Bad Request from strict OpenAI-compatible backends.
+
+    Qwen, SGLang, and vLLM reject requests that contain more than one
+    SystemMessage or where the sole SystemMessage is not at position 0.
+    """
+
+
+def _strict_backend_handler(request):
+    """Simulate a strict OpenAI-compatible backend (Qwen / SGLang / vLLM).
+
+    These backends accept exactly 0 or 1 SystemMessage, and if present it
+    must be at position 0. They reject with "System message must be at the
+    beginning" or "Received multiple system messages" otherwise.
+
+    The handler flattens the request into ``[system_message, *messages]``
+    (matching ``create_agent``'s ``_execute_model_sync``) then validates.
+    """
+    final = _final_payload(request)
+    system_count = sum(1 for m in final if isinstance(m, SystemMessage))
+    if system_count > 1:
+        raise StrictBackendError("Received multiple system messages")
+    if system_count == 1 and not isinstance(final[0], SystemMessage):
+        raise StrictBackendError("System message must be at the beginning")
+    return "ok"
+
+
+async def _async_strict_backend_handler(request):
+    """Async variant of ``_strict_backend_handler`` for awrap_model_call tests."""
+    return _strict_backend_handler(request)
+
+
+class TestStrictBackendStub:
+    """End-to-end test against a strict-backend stub.
+
+    Builds the request the way create_agent does (prompt in system_message,
+    not messages) and asserts that:
+    - Without middleware, the strict stub raises StrictBackendError (#3707 bug)
+    - With middleware, the strict stub accepts the request (fix confirmed)
+    """
+
+    def test_first_turn_without_middleware_rejects(self):
+        """Reproduce #3707: raw request → handler flattens to 2 SystemMessages → stub rejects."""
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="You are DeerFlow.", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>", id="msg-1"),
+                HumanMessage(content="Hello", id="msg-1__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        # Final payload: [sys-prompt, reminder, __user] → 2 SystemMessages
+        # → strict backend rejects: multiple system messages
+        with pytest.raises(StrictBackendError):
+            _strict_backend_handler(request)
+
+    def test_first_turn_with_middleware_accepts(self):
+        """Fix confirmed: middleware coalesces → 1 SystemMessage → stub accepts."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="You are DeerFlow.", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>", id="msg-1"),
+                HumanMessage(content="Hello", id="msg-1__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        result = mw.wrap_model_call(request, _strict_backend_handler)
+        assert result == "ok"
+
+    def test_midnight_crossing_without_middleware_rejects(self):
+        """3 SystemMessages without middleware → stub rejects."""
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day1</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-1",
+                    additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="q1", id="msg-1__user"),
+                AIMessage(content="a1", id="ai-1"),
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-2",
+                    additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="q2", id="msg-2__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        with pytest.raises(StrictBackendError):
+            _strict_backend_handler(request)
+
+    def test_midnight_crossing_with_middleware_accepts(self):
+        """3 SystemMessages with middleware → coalesced to 1 → stub accepts.
+
+        Only the latest reminder (day2) survives in the merged content;
+        the stale day1 reminder is dropped.
+        """
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day1</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-1",
+                    additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="q1", id="msg-1__user"),
+                AIMessage(content="a1", id="ai-1"),
+                SystemMessage(
+                    content="<system-reminder>day2</system-reminder>",
+                    id="msg-2",
+                    additional_kwargs={"dynamic_context_reminder": True},
+                ),
+                HumanMessage(content="q2", id="msg-2__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        result = mw.wrap_model_call(request, _strict_backend_handler)
+        assert result == "ok"
+
+    @pytest.mark.asyncio
+    async def test_async_path_with_middleware_accepts(self):
+        """Async path: middleware + strict stub → accepts."""
+        mw = SystemMessageCoalescingMiddleware()
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[
+                SystemMessage(content="<system-reminder>date</system-reminder>", id="msg-1"),
+                HumanMessage(content="Hello", id="msg-1__user"),
+            ],
+        )
+        result = await mw.awrap_model_call(request, _async_strict_backend_handler)
+        assert result == "ok"
+
+    def test_clean_request_no_middleware_needed(self):
+        """Only system_message field, no in-msg systems → stub accepts without middleware."""
+        request = _make_request(
+            system_message=SystemMessage(content="prompt", id="sys-prompt"),
+            messages=[HumanMessage(content="hi")],
+        )
+        # No middleware needed — single SystemMessage at position 0
+        result = _strict_backend_handler(request)
+        assert result == "ok"